16th century: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|One hundred years, from 1501 to 1600}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2022}}
{{Centurybox|16}}
[[File:Mercator World Map.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[world map]] by the Italian [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (from whose name the word ''America'' is derived) and Belgian [[Gerardus Mercator]] shows (besides the classical continents [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]]) the [[Americas]] as ''America sive India Nova', [[New Guinea]], and other islands of [[Southeast Asia]], as well as a hypothetical [[Hyperborea|Arctic continent]] and a yet undetermined ''[[Terra Australis]]''.<ref name="NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue">Modern reference works on the period tend to follow the introduction of the Gregorian calendar for the sake of clarity; thus [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendar.html NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue] states "The Gregorian calendar is used for all dates from 1582 Oct 15 onwards. Before that date, the Julian calendar is used." For dates after 15 October 1582, care must be taken to avoid confusion of the two styles.</ref>'']]The '''16th century''' began with the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] year [[1501]] (represented by the [[Roman numerals]] MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] year [[1600]] (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).<ref name="NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue"/>


The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century which saw the rise of [[Western culture|Western civilization]].
The [[Renaissance]] in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include [[accounting]] and [[political science]]. [[Copernicus]] proposed the [[Copernican heliocentrism|heliocentric universe]], which was met with strong resistance, and [[Tycho Brahe]] refuted the theory of [[celestial spheres]] through observational measurement of the [[SN 1572|1572 appearance]] of a [[Milky Way]] [[supernova]]. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by [[Ptolemy]] and [[Aristotle]], and led to major revolutions in [[astronomy]] and science. [[Galileo Galilei]] became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of [[physics]] and [[astronomy]], becoming a major figure in the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe.
Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], followed by France and England in [[Northern America]] and the [[Lesser Antilles]]. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between [[Brazil]], the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in the [[East Indies|Indies]], whereas the Spanish came to dominate the [[Greater Antilles]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], and opened trade across the [[Pacific Ocean]], linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French [[privateer]]s began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of [[colonialism]] established [[mercantilism]] as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a [[zero-sum game]] in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist [[doctrine]] encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European [[Expansionism|expansion]] and [[imperialism]] throughout the world until the [[19th century]] or early [[20th century]].
The [[Reformation]] in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the [[Pope|papacy]] and the [[Catholic Church]]. In [[Kingdom of England|England]], the British-Italian [[Alberico Gentili]] wrote the first book on public international law and divided [[secularism]] from [[canon law]] and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal [[Thirty Years' War]] being laid towards the end of the century.
In the [[Middle East]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] continued to expand, with the [[sultan]] taking the title of [[caliph]], while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] sect of [[Islam]] under the rule of the [[Safavid dynasty]] of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-[[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Vries |first1=Jan |date=14 September 2009 |title=The limits of globalization in the early modern world |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=710–733 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.2862 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x |jstor=40929823 |s2cid=219969360 |ssrn=1635517}}</ref>
In the [[Indian subcontinent]], following the defeat of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Vijayanagara Empire]], new powers emerged, the [[Sur Empire]] founded by [[Sher Shah Suri]], [[Deccan sultanates]], [[List of Rajput dynasties and states|Rajput states]], and the [[Mughal Empire]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Sarina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zn8I4qEew9oC&q=Pashtun+Sher+Shah+Suri |title=Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway |last2=Lindsay Brown |last3=Paul Clammer |last4=Rodney Cocks |last5=John Mock |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-542-0 |volume=7, illustrated |page=137 |access-date=23 August 2010}}</ref> by Emperor [[Babur]], a direct descendant of [[Timur]] and [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Babur |title=Babur Nama |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-14-400149-1 |page=vii}}</ref> His successors [[Humayun]] and [[Akbar]], enlarged the empire to include most of [[South Asia]].
Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the [[Sengoku period]], and emerged from it as a unified nation under [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty, which was becoming increasingly [[Isolationism#China|isolationist]], coming into conflict with Japan over the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|control of Korea]] as well as [[Wokou|Japanese pirates]].
In Africa, [[Christianity in Africa#Jesuit missions in Africa|Christianity]] had begun to spread in [[Central Africa]] and [[Southern Africa]]. Until the [[Scramble for Africa]] in the late 19th century, most of Africa was left uncolonized.
==Significant events==
{{for|timelines of earlier events|15th century|Timeline of the Middle Ages}}
===1501–1509===
[[File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg|thumb|''[[Mona Lisa]]'', by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], {{Circa|1503–1506}}, one of the world's best-known paintings|upright]]
* [[1501]]: [[Michelangelo]] returns to his native [[Florence]] to begin work on the statue ''[[David (Michelangelo)|David]]''.
* [[1501]]: [[Safavids|Safavid dynasty]] reunifies [[Iran]] and rules over it until [[1736]]. Safavids adopt a [[Shia Islam|Shia]] branch of [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=16th Century Timeline (1501 to 1600) |url=http://www.fsmitha.com/time16.htm |publisher=fsmitha.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203064547/http://www.fsmitha.com/time16.htm |archive-date=February 3, 2009}}</ref>
* [[1501]]: [[First Battle of Cannanore]] between the [[3rd Portuguese India Armada (Nova, 1501)|Third Portuguese Armada]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin]] under [[João da Nova]] and Zamorin of [[Kozhikode]]'s navy marks the beginning of Portuguese conflicts in the [[Indian Ocean]].
* [[1502]]: First reported [[Slavery|African slaves]] in the [[New World]]
* [[1502]]: The [[Crimean Khanate]] sacks [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] in the [[Golden Horde]], ending its existence.
* [[1503]]: [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] defeats [[Early Modern France|France]] at the [[Battle of Cerignola]]. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms.
* [[1503]]: [[Leonardo da Vinci]] begins painting the ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' and completes it three years later.
* [[1503]]: [[Nostradamus]] is born on either December 14 or December 21.
* [[1504]]: A period of [[drought]], with [[famine]] in all of Spain.
* [[1504]]: Death of [[Isabella I of Castile]]; [[Joanna of Castille|Joanna of Castile]] becomes the Queen.
* [[1504]]: Foundation of the [[Sultanate of Sennar]] by [[Amara Dunqas]], in what is modern [[Sudan]]
* [[1505]]: [[Zhengde Emperor]] ascends the throne of [[Ming dynasty]].
* [[1505]]: [[Martin Luther]] enters [[St. Augustine's Monastery (Erfurt)|St. Augustine's Monastery]] at Erfurt, Germany, on 17 July and begins his journey to instigating the [[Reformation]].
* [[1505]]: [[Trenggana|Sultan Trenggono]] builds the first Muslim kingdom in Java, called [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]], in Indonesia. Many other small kingdoms were established in other islands to fight against Portuguese. Each kingdom introduced local language as a way of communication and unity.
* [[1506]]: [[Leonardo da Vinci]] completes the ''[[Mona Lisa]]''.
* [[1506]]: King [[Afonso I of Kongo]] wins the battle of Mbanza Kongo, resulting in Catholicism becoming [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo's]] state religion.[[File:Elgrancapitantrasbatalladeceriñola.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Battle of Cerignola]]: [[El Gran Capitan]] finds the corpse of [[Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours]]]]
* [[1506]]: At least two thousand [[Marrano|converted Jews]] are massacred in a [[Lisbon]] riot, Portugal.
* [[1506]]: [[Christopher Columbus]] dies in [[Valladolid]], [[Spain]].
* [[1506]]: [[Poland]] is invaded by [[Tatar invasions|Tatars]] from the [[Crimean Khanate]].
* [[1507]]: The first recorded epidemic of [[smallpox]] in the [[New World]] on the island of [[Hispaniola]]. It devastates the native [[Taíno]] population.<ref>[http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/preparedness/bt_public_history_smallpox.shtm "History of Smallpox – Smallpox Through the Ages"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924141608/https://www.dshs.state.tx.us/preparedness/bt_public_history_smallpox.shtm |date=2019-09-24 }}. ''Texas Department of State Health Services.''</ref>
* [[1507]]: [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] conquered [[Capture of Ormuz (1507)|Hormuz]] and [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], among other bases in the [[Persian Gulf]], taking control of the region at the entrance of the [[Persian Gulf|Gulf]].
* [[1508]]: The [[Christianity and Islam|Christian-Islamic]] power struggle in Europe and West Asia spills over into the Indian Ocean as [[Battle of Chaul]] during the [[Portuguese-Mamluk War]]
* [[1508]]–[[1512]]: [[Michelangelo]] paints the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]].
* [[1509]]: The defeat of joint fleet of the [[Mahmud Begada|Sultan of Gujarat]], the [[Burji dynasty|Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt]], and the [[Saamoothiri|Zamorin]] of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] with support of the [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Battle of Diu]] marks the beginning of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] dominance of the [[Spice trade]] and the [[Indian Ocean]].
* [[1509]]:  The Portuguese king sends [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]] to find [[Malacca]], the eastern terminus of Asian trade. After initially receiving Sequeira, [[Mahmud Shah (Sultan of Malacca)|Sultan Mahmud Shah]] captures and/or kills several of his men and attempts an assault on the four Portuguese ships, which escape.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p23">Ricklefs (1991), p.23</ref> The [[Java]]nese fleet is also destroyed in Malacca.
* [[1509]]: [[Krishnadevaraya]] ascends the throne of [[Vijayanagara Empire]].
===[[1510s]]===
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|upright|[[Afonso de Albuquerque]]]]
* [[1509]]–[[1510]]: The 'great [[plague (disease)|plague]]' in various parts of [[Tudor England]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A LIST OF NATIONAL EPIDEMICS OF PLAGUE IN ENGLAND 1348–1665 |url=http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508010316/http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm |archive-date=2009-05-08 |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* [[1510]]: [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] of Portugal [[Portuguese conquest of Goa|conquers]] [[Goa]] in India.
* [[1511]]: [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] of Portugal [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|conquers]] [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]], the capital of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]] in present-day Malaysia.
* [[1512]]: [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] writes ''[[Commentariolus]]'', and proclaims the Sun the center of the [[Solar System]].
* [[1512]]: The southern part (historical core) of the [[Kingdom of Navarre]] is invaded by [[Spain|Castile and Aragon]].
* [[1512]]: [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]], founded by [[Quli Qutb Mulk]], rules [[Golconda Fort|Golconda]] Sultanate  until [[1687]].
* [[1512]]: The first Portuguese exploratory expedition was sent eastward from Malacca (in present-day Malaysia) to search for the '[[Maluku Islands|Spice Islands]]' ([[Maluku Islands|Maluku]]) led by [[Francisco Serrão]]. Serrão is shipwrecked but struggles on to [[Hitu]] (northern [[Ambon Island|Ambon]]) and wins the favour of the local rulers.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p24">Ricklefs (1991), page 24</ref>
* [[1513]]: [[Machiavelli]] writes ''[[The Prince]]'', a treatise about political philosophy
* [[1513]]: The Portuguese [[sailor|mariner]] [[Jorge Álvares]] lands at [[Macau]], China, during the [[Ming dynasty]].
* [[1513]]: [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] defeats the French at the [[Battle of Guinegate (1513)|Battle of the Spurs]].
* [[1513]]: The [[Battle of Flodden Field]] in which invading [[Scottish people|Scots]] are defeated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s forces.
* [[1513]]: Sultan [[Selim I]] ("The Grim") orders the massacre of [[Shia]] Muslims in [[Anatolia]] (present-day Turkey).
* [[1513]]: [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], in service of Spain arrives at the [[Pacific Ocean]] (which he called Mar del Sur) across the [[Isthmus of Panama]]. He was the first European to do so.
* [[1514]]: The [[Battle of Orsha]] halts [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]]'s expansion into [[Eastern Europe]].
* [[1514]]: [[György Dózsa|Dózsa rebellion]] (peasant revolt) in [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]].[[File:Luther 95 Thesen.png|thumb|upright|[[Martin Luther]] initiated the [[Reformation]] with his [[Ninety-five Theses]] in 1517.]]
* [[1514]]: The [[Battle of Chaldiran]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] gains decisive victory against [[Safavid dynasty]].
* [[1515]]: [[Coronation of the French monarch|Ascension]] of [[Francis I of France]] as [[King of France]] following the death of [[Louis XII]].
* [[1515]]: The [[Ottoman Empire]] wrests Eastern [[Anatolia]] from the Safavids after the [[Battle of Chaldiran]].
* [[1515]]: The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] conquer the last beyliks of Anatolia, the [[Beylik of Dulkadir|Dulkadirs]] and the [[Ramadanid Emirate|Ramadanids]].
* [[1516]]–[[1517]]: The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] defeat the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]]s and gain control of [[Egypt]], [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], and the [[Levant]].
* [[1517]]: The [[Sweating sickness]] epidemic in [[Tudor England]].<ref>[http://www.storyoflondon.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=244&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 The Sweating Sickness]. ''Story of London.''. Accessed 2009-04-25.  [https://web.archive.org/web/20071211205942/http://www.storyoflondon.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=244&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 Archived] 2009-05-03.</ref>
* [[1517]]: The [[Reformation]] begins when [[Martin Luther]] posts his [[Ninety-five Theses]] in [[Saxony]].
* [[1518]]: The [[Treaty of London (1518)|Treaty of London]] was a non-aggression pact between the major European nations. The signatories were Burgundy, France, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, the Papal States and Spain, all of whom agreed not to attack one another and to come to the aid of any that were under attack.
* [[1518]]: [[Mir Chakar Khan Rind]] leaves [[Balochistan (region)|Baluchistan]] and settles in [[Punjab region|Punjab]].
* [[1518]]: [[Leo Africanus]], also known as al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Fasi, an Andalusian Berber diplomat who is best known for his book ''[[Description of Africa (1550 book)|Descrittione dell’Africa]]'' (Description of Africa), is captured by Spanish pirates; he is taken to Rome and presented to [[Pope Leo X]].
* [[1518]]: The [[dancing plague of 1518]] begins in [[Strasbourg]], lasting for about one month.
* [[1519]]: [[Leonardo da Vinci]] dies of natural causes on May 2.[[File:Europe at the Accession of the Emperor Charles V (1519).jpg|thumb|right|Europe at the time of the accession of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1519]]
*[[1519]]: [[Wang Yangming]], the Chinese philosopher and governor of [[Jiangxi]] province, describes his intent to use the firepower of the ''fo-lang-ji'', a [[breech-loading]] Portuguese [[culverin]], in order to suppress the rebellion of Prince [[Zhu Chenhao]].
* [[1519]]: [[Barbary pirates]] led by [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], a Turk appointed to ruling position in Algiers by the Ottoman Empire, raid [[Provence]] and [[Toulon]] in southern [[France]].
* [[1519]]: Charles I of [[Archduke of Austria|Austria]], [[Spain]], and the [[Low Countries]] becomes Emperor of [[Holy Roman Empire]] as [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (ruled until 1556).
* [[1519]]–[[1522]]: Spanish expedition commanded by [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] and [[Juan Sebastián Elcano|Elcano]] are the first to [[Circumnavigate]] the Earth.
* [[1519]]–[[1521]]: [[Hernán Cortés]] leads the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]].
===[[1520s]]===
[[File:Retrato de Hernando de Magallanes.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ferdinand Magellan]] led the first expedition that [[circumnavigated]] the globe in 1519–1522.]]
* [[1520]]–[[1566]]: The reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] marks the zenith of the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1520]]: The first European diplomatic mission to [[Ethiopia]], sent by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], arrives at [[Massawa]] 9 April, and reaches the imperial encampment of Emperor [[Dawit II]] in [[Shewa]] 9 October.
* [[1520]]: [[Vijayanagara Empire]] forces under [[Krishnadevaraya]] defeat the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi]] under at the [[Battle of Raichur]]
* [[1520]]: Sultan [[Ali Mughayat Syah|Ali Mughayat Shah]] of [[Aceh]] begins an expansionist campaign capturing Daya on the west [[Sumatran]] coast (in present-day Indonesia), and the pepper and gold producing lands on the east coast.
* [[1520]]: The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] established a [[trading post]] in the village of Lamakera on the eastern side of [[Solor]] (in present-day Indonesia) as a transit harbour between [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] and [[Malacca]].
* [[1521]]: [[Belgrade]] (in present-day Serbia) is [[Siege of Belgrade (1521)|captured]] by the Ottoman Empire.
* [[1521]]: After building fortifications at [[Tuen Mun]], the Portuguese attempt to invade [[Ming dynasty]] China, but are expelled by Chinese naval forces.
* [[1521]]: [[Philippines]] encountered by [[Ferdinand Magellan]]. He was later killed in the [[Battle of Mactan]] in central Philippines in the same year.
* [[1521]]: [[Jiajing Emperor]] ascended the throne of [[Ming dynasty]], China.
* [[1521]]: November, [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s expedition reaches [[Maluku (province)|Maluku]] (in present-day Indonesia) and after trade with [[Ternate]] returns to Europe with a load of [[cloves]].
* [[1521]]: [[Pati Unus]] leads the invasion of [[Malacca]] (in present-day Malaysia) against the Portuguese occupation. Pati Unus was killed in this battle, and was succeeded by his brother, sultan [[Trenggana]].
* [[1522]]: [[Rhodes]] [[Siege of Rhodes (1522)|falls]] to the Ottomans of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Sandra Arlinghaus |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sarhaus/larimore02/suleiman.html |title=Life Span of Suleiman the Magnificent 1494–1566 |publisher=Personal.umich.edu |access-date=2013-05-05}}</ref>[[File:Sack of Rome of 1527 by Johannes Lingelbach 17th century.jpg|thumb|''[[Sack of Rome (1527)|Sack of Rome of 1527]]'' by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]'s forces (painting by [[Johannes Lingelbach]])|280x280px]]
* [[1522]]: The Portuguese ally themselves with the rulers of [[Sultanate of Ternate|Ternate]] (in present-day Indonesia) and begin construction of a fort.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p24" />
* [[1522]]: August, [[Luso-Sundanese Treaty]] signed between [[Portugal]] and [[Sunda Kingdom]] granted Portuguese permit to build fortress in [[Sunda Kelapa]].
* [[1523]]: [[Sweden]] [[Foundation of Modern Sweden|gains independence]] from the [[Kalmar Union]].
* [[1523]]: The [[Cacao bean]] is introduced to Spain by [[Hernán Cortés]]
* [[1524]]–[[1525]]: [[German Peasants' War]] in the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
* [[1524]]: [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] is the first European to explore the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic coast]] of [[North America]] between [[South Carolina]] and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]].
* [[1524]]: [[Ismail I]], the founder of [[Safavid dynasty]], dies and [[Tahmasp I]] becomes king.[[File:OttomanJanissariesAndDefendingKnightsOfStJohnSiegeOfRhodes1522.jpg|thumb|upright|Gun-wielding Ottoman [[Janissaries]] and defending [[Knights of Saint John]] at the [[Siege of Rhodes (1522)|siege of Rhodes]] in 1522, from an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[manuscript]]]]
* [[1525]]: [[Timurid Empire]] forces under [[Babur]] defeat the [[Lodi dynasty]] at the [[First Battle of Panipat]], end of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].
* [[1525]]: [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] forces defeat France at the [[Battle of Pavia]], [[Francis I of France]] is captured.
* [[1526]]: The Ottomans defeat the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] at the [[Battle of Mohács]].
* [[1526]]: [[Mughal Empire]], founded by Babur.
* [[1527]]: [[Sack of Rome (1527)|Sack of Rome]] with [[Pope Clement VII]] escaping and the Swiss Guards defending the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] being killed. The sack of the city of Rome considered the end of the [[Italian Renaissance]].
* [[1527]]: [[Protestant Reformation]] begins in [[Sweden]].
* [[1527]]: The last ruler of [[Majapahit]] falls from power. This state (located in present-day Indonesia) was finally extinguished at the hands of the [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]]. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali; however, the power and the seat of government transferred to Demak under the leadership of Pangeran, later [[Raden Patah|Sultan Fatah]].
* [[1527]]: June 22, The Javanese Prince [[Fatahillah]] of the [[Sultanate of Cirebon|Cirebon Sultanate]] successfully defeated the Portuguese armed forces at the site of the [[Sunda Kelapa]] Harbor. The city was then renamed [[Jayakarta]], meaning "a glorious victory." This eventful day came to be acknowledged as Jakarta's Founding Anniversary.
* [[1527]]: [[Mughal Empire]] forces defeat the [[Rajput]] led by [[Rana Sanga]] of [[Mewar]] at the [[Battle of Khanwa]]
* [[1529]]: The [[Austrians]] defeat the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|siege of Vienna]].
* [[1529]]: [[Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)|Treaty of Zaragoza]] defined the [[antimeridian]] of [[Treaty of Tordesillas|Tordesillas]] attributing the [[Moluccas]] to Portugal and [[Philippines]] to Spain.
* [[1529]]: [[Imam]] [[Ahmad Gurey]] defeats the [[Ethiopia]]n Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Dawit II]] in the [[Battle of Shimbra Kure]], the opening clash of the [[Ethiopian–Adal War]].
===[[1530s]]===
[[File:Battle Spanish Otomies Metztitlan.jpg|thumb|Spanish ''[[conquistador]]s'' with their [[Tlaxcallan]] allies fighting against the [[Otomies]] of Metztitlan in present-day Mexico, a [[16th-century]] codex|230x230px]]
* [[1531]]–[[1532]]: The [[History of the Church of England|Church of England]] breaks away from the [[Catholic Church]] and recognizes [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] as the head of the Church.
* [[1531]]: The [[Inca Civil War]] is fought between the two brothers, [[Atahualpa]] and [[Huáscar]].
* [[1532]]: [[Francisco Pizarro]] leads the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire]].
* [[1532]]: Foundation of [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]], the first permanent Portuguese settlement in the Americas.
* [[1533]]: [[Anne Boleyn]] becomes Queen of England.
* [[1533]]: [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth Tudor]] is born.
* [[1534]]: [[Jacques Cartier]] claims Canada for France.
* [[1534]]: The Ottomans [[Capture of Baghdad (1534)|capture]] [[Baghdad]] from the [[Safavid Iran|Safavids]].
* [[1534]]: [[Affair of the Placards]], where King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] becomes more active in repression of French Protestants.
* [[1535]]: The [[Münster Rebellion]], an attempt of radical, [[Millennialism|millennialist]], [[Anabaptists]] to establish a [[theocracy]], ends in bloodshed.
* [[1535]]: The Portuguese in Ternate depose Sultan [[Tabariji of Ternate|Tabariji]] (or Tabarija) and send him to Portuguese Goa where he converts to Christianity and bequeaths his Portuguese godfather [[Jordao de Freitas]] the island of [[Ambon Island|Ambon]].<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25">Ricklefs (1991), page 25</ref> [[Hairun]] becomes the next sultan.
* [[1536]]: [[Catherine of Aragon]] dies in [[Kimbolton Castle]], in England.[[File:ImperioOtomanoSimplificado-en.svg|thumb|[[List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings|Territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire]] under Suleiman (in red and orange)]]
* [[1536]]:  In England, [[Anne Boleyn]] is beheaded for adultery and treason.
* [[1536]]:  Establishment of the [[Portuguese Inquisition|Inquisition]] in Portugal.
* [[1536]]:  Foundation of [[Buenos Aires]] (in present-day Argentina) by [[Pedro de Mendoza]].
* [[1537]]: The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] establish [[Recife]] in [[Pernambuco]], north-east of [[Brazil]].
* [[1537]]:  [[William Tyndale]]'s partial translation of the [[Bible]] into English is published, which would eventually be incorporated into the [[King James Bible]].
* [[1538]]: [[Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada]] founds [[Bogotá]].
* [[1538]]: [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]]–[[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] fleet is defeated by the Ottoman Turks at the [[Battle of Preveza]].
* [[1539]]: [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] explores inland North America.
===[[1540s]]===
[[File:copernicus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nicolaus Copernicus]]]]
*[[1540]]: The [[Society of Jesus]], or the Jesuits, is founded by [[Ignatius of Loyola]] and six companions with the approval of [[Pope Paul III]].
*[[1540]]: [[Sher Shah Suri]] founds the [[Sur Empire|Suri dynasty]] in [[South Asia]], an ethnic [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] ([[Pathan]]) of the house of [[Sur Dynasty|Sur]], who supplanted the [[Mughal dynasty]] as rulers of North [[India]] during the reign of the relatively ineffectual second Mughal emperor [[Humayun]]. Sher Shah Suri decisively defeats Humayun in the Battle of Bilgram (May 17, 1540).
*[[1541]]: [[Pedro de Valdivia]] founds [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago de Chile]].
*[[1541]]: An [[Algeria]]n military campaign by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V of Spain]] ([[Habsburg]]) is unsuccessful.
*[[1541]]: [[Amazon River]] is encountered and explored by [[Francisco de Orellana]].
*[[1541]]: [[Siege of Buda (1541)|Capture of Buda]] and the absorption of the major part of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] by the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*[[1541]]: [[Sahib I Giray]] of [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]] invades [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Russia]].
*[[1542]]: The [[Italian War of 1542–1546]] War resumes between [[Francis I of France]] and [[Emperor Charles V]]. This time [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] is allied with the Emperor, while [[James V of Scotland]] and Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]] are allied with the [[French people|French]].
*[[1542]]: [[Akbar The Great]] is born in the [[Rajput]] [[Umarkot Fort]]
*[[1542]]: Spanish explorer [[Ruy López de Villalobos]] named the island of [[Samar]] and [[Leyte]] ''[[Philippines|Las Islas Filipinas]]'' honoring [[Philip II of Spain]] and became the official name of the [[archipelago]].
*[[1543]]: [[Ethiopia]]n/[[Portugal|Portuguese]] troops defeat the Adal army led by Imam [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi|Ahmad Gurey]] at the [[Battle of Wayna Daga]]; Imam [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi|Ahmad Gurey]] is killed at this battle.
* [[1543]]: [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun
*[[1543]]: The [[Nanban trade period]] begins after Portuguese traders make contact with [[Japan]].
*[[1544]]: The [[France|French]] defeat an [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]]–[[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] army at the [[Battle of Ceresole]].[[File:Along the River During the Qingming Festival (Suzhou Imitation) 12.jpg|thumb|Scenes of everyday life in [[Ming Dynasty|Ming China]], by [[Qiu Ying]]|300x300px]]
*[[1544]]: [[Battle of the Shirts]] in [[Scottish clan|Scotland]]. The [[Clan Fraser|Frasers]] and Macdonalds of [[Clan Ranald]] fight over a disputed chiefship; reportedly, 5 Frasers and 8 Macdonalds survive.
*[[1545]]: [[Songhai Empire|Songhai]] forces sack the [[Mali Empire|Malian]] capital of [[Niani, Mali|Niani]]
*[[1545]]: The [[Council of Trent]] meets for the first time in Trent (in northern Italy).
*[[1546]]: [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] is made chief architect of [[St. Peter's Basilica]].
*[[1546]]: [[Francis Xavier]] works among the peoples of Ambon, Ternate and [[Morotai]] (Moro) laying the foundations for a permanent mission. (to 1547)
*[[1547]]: [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] dies in the [[Palace of Whitehall]] on 28 January at the age of 55.
*[[1547]]: [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] dies in the [[Château de Rambouillet]] on 31 March at the age of 52.
*[[1547]]: [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] becomes King of England and Ireland on 28 January and is crowned on 20 February at the age of 9.
*[[1547]]: Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] decisively dismantles the [[Schmalkaldic League]] at the [[Battle of Mühlberg]].
*[[1547]]: [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Grand Prince]] [[Ivan the Terrible]] is crowned tsar of (All) Russia, thenceforth becoming the [[Tsar of Russia#Tsars of Russia|first Russian tsar]].
*[[1548]]: [[Battle of Uedahara]]: Firearms are used for the first time on the battlefield in [[Japan]], and [[Takeda Shingen]] is defeated by [[Murakami Yoshikiyo]].
* [[1548]]: [[Askia Daoud]], who reigned from 1548 to 1583, establishes public libraries in [[Timbuktu]] (in present-day Mali).
*[[1548]]: The [[Ming dynasty]] government of [[China]] issues a decree banning all foreign trade and closes down all seaports along the coast; these [[Hai jin]] laws came during the [[Wokou]] wars with [[Japan]]ese pirates.
*[[1549]]: [[Tomé de Sousa]] establishes [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] in [[Bahia]], north-east of [[Brazil]].
*[[1549]]: [[Arya Penangsang]] with the support of his teacher, Sunan Kudus, avenges the death of Raden Kikin by sending an envoy named Rangkud to kill Sunan Prawoto by [[Keris Kyai Satan Kober]] (in present-day Indonesia).
===[[1550s]]===
[[File:The Adventures of Akbar artillery.jpg|thumb|upright|The Islamic [[gunpowder empires]]: [[Mughal Army]] [[artillery]]men during the reign of [[Akbar|Jalaluddin Akbar]]]]
* [[1550]]: The architect [[Mimar Sinan]] builds the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]].
* [[1550]]: [[Mongols]] led by [[Altan Khan]] invade [[Ming Dynasty|China]] and besiege [[Beijing]].
* [[1550]]–[[1551]]: [[Valladolid debate]] concerning the human rights of the [[Indigenous people of the Americas]].
* [[1551]]: Fifth outbreak of [[sweating sickness]] in [[England]]. [[John Caius]] of [[Shrewsbury]] writes the first full contemporary account of the symptoms of the disease.
* [[1551]]: North African [[Barbary pirates|pirates]] enslave the entire population of the Maltese island [[Gozo]], between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to [[Libya]].
* [[1552]]: Russia conquers the [[Khanate of Kazan]] in central Asia.
* [[1552]]: Jesuit China Mission, [[Francis Xavier]] dies.
* [[1553]]: [[Mary I of England|Mary Tudor]] becomes the first queen regnant of England and restores the Church of England under Papal authority.
* [[1553]]: The [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] found a settlement at [[History of Macau|Macau]].
* [[1554]]: [[Missionary|Missionaries]] [[José de Anchieta]] and [[Manuel da Nóbrega]] establishes [[São Paulo]], southeast [[Brazil]].
* [[1554]]: [[Elizabeth I of England|Princess Elizabeth]] is imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]] upon the orders of [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] for suspicion of being involved in the [[Wyatt's rebellion|Wyatt rebellion]].
* [[1555]]: The [[Muscovy Company]] is the first major English [[Joint stock company|joint stock]] trading company.
* [[1556]]: Publication in [[Venice]] of Delle Navigiationi et Viaggi (terzo volume) by [[Giovanni Battista Ramusio]], secretary of Council of Ten, with plan ''La Terra de Hochelaga'', an illustration of the [[Hochelaga (village)|Hochelaga]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jacquescartier.org/plan-hochelaga/index.html |title=La Terra De Hochelaga – Jaques Cartier a Hochelaga |publisher=jacquescarter.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223154152/http://jacquescartier.org/plan-hochelaga/index.html |archive-date=December 23, 2008}}</ref>
* [[1556]]: The [[Shaanxi earthquake]] in China is history's deadliest known earthquake during the [[Ming dynasty]].
* [[1556]]: [[Georgius Agricola]], the "Father of [[Mineralogy]]", publishes his ''[[De re metallica]]''.
* [[1556]]: [[Akbar]] defeats [[Hemu]] at the [[Second battle of Panipat]].
* [[1556]]: Russia conquers the [[Astrakhan Khanate]].
* [[1556]]–[[1605]]: During his reign, [[Akbar]] expands the Mughal Empire in a series of conquests (in the Indian subcontinent).[[File:1555-56 CE World Map.PNG|thumb|270px|Political map of the world in 1556]]
* [[1556]]: [[Mir Chakar Khan Rind]] captures [[Delhi]] with [[Humayun]].
* [[1556]]: [[Pomponio Algerio]], radical theologian, is executed by boiling in oil as part of the [[Roman Inquisition]].
* [[1557]]: [[Habsburg Spain]] declares bankruptcy. [[Philip II of Spain]]  had to declare four [[National bankruptcy|state bankruptcies]] in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596.
* [[1557]]: The [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] settle in [[Macau]] (on the western side of the Pearl River Delta across from present-day Hong Kong).
* [[1557]]: The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] capture [[Massawa]], all but isolating [[Ethiopia]] from the rest of the world.
* [[1558]]: [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth Tudor]] becomes Queen Elizabeth I at age 25.
* [[1558]]–[[1603]]: The [[Elizabethan era]] is considered the height of the [[English Renaissance]].
* [[1558]]–[[1583]]: [[Livonian War]] between Poland, Grand Principality of Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.
* [[1558]]: After 200 years, the [[Kingdom of England]] loses [[Calais]] to France.
* [[1559]]: With the [[Peace of Cateau Cambrésis]], the [[Italian Wars]] conclude.
* [[1559]]: Sultan [[Hairun]] of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) protests the Portuguese's [[Christianity|Christianisation]] activities in his lands. Hostilities between [[Sultanate of Ternate|Ternate]] and the Portuguese.
===[[1560s]]===
[[File:Akbar shoots Jaimal at the siege of Chitor.jpg|thumb|The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Akbar]] shoots the [[Rajput]] warrior Jaimal during the [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–1568)|Siege of Chittorgarh]] in 1567|359x359px]]
* [[1560]]: [[Ottoman navy]] defeats the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] fleet at the [[Battle of Djerba]].
* [[1560]]: [[Elizabeth Bathory]] is born in Nyirbator, Hungary.
* [[1560]]: By winning the [[Battle of Okehazama]], [[Oda Nobunaga]] becomes one of the pre-eminent warlords of [[Japan]].
* [[1560]]: [[Jeanne d'Albret]] declares [[Calvinism]] the official religion of [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]].
* [[1560]]: [[St. Lazarus' Church, Macau|Lazarus Church, Macau]]
* [[1561]]: Sir [[Francis Bacon]] is born in [[London]].
* [[1561]]: The [[battles of Kawanakajima|fourth battle of Kawanakajima]] between the Uesugi and Takeda at Hachimanbara takes place.
* [[1561]]: [[Guido de Bres]] draws up the [[Belgic Confession]] of Protestant faith.
* [[1562]]: [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]] reconciles the Muslim and Hindu factions by marrying into the powerful [[Rajput]] Hindu caste.
* [[1562]]–[[1598]]: [[French Wars of Religion]] between [[Catholics]] and [[Huguenot]]s.
* [[1562]]: [[Massacre of Wassy]] and [[Battle of Dreux]] in the [[French Wars of Religion]].
* [[1562]]: Portuguese [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] priests build a palm-trunk fortress which [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[Muslim]]s burned down the following year. The fort was rebuilt from more durable materials and the Dominicans commenced the [[Christianity|Christianisation]] of the local population.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25" />
* [[1563]]: [[Black Death|Plague]] outbreak claimed 80,000 people in [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] [[Kingdom of England|England]]. In [[London]] alone, over 20,000 people died of the disease.
* [[1564]]: [[Galileo Galilei]] born on February 15
* [[1564]]: [[William Shakespeare]] baptized 26 April
* [[1565]]: [[Deccan sultanates]] defeat the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] at the [[Battle of Talikota]].
* [[1565]]: [[Mir Chakar Khan Rind]] dies at aged 97.
* [[1565]]: [[Estácio de Sá]] establishes [[Rio de Janeiro]] in [[Brazil]].
* [[1565]]: The [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]], a Crusading Order, defeat the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[siege of Malta (1565)]].
* [[1565]]: [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] establishes in [[Cebu]] the first Spanish settlement in the [[Philippines]] starting a period of Spanish colonization that would last over three hundred years.
* [[1565]]: Spanish navigator [[Andres de Urdaneta]] discovers the maritime route from Asia to the Americas across the [[Pacific Ocean]], also known as the ''tornaviaje''.
* [[1565]]: [[Royal Exchange, London|Royal Exchange]] is founded by [[Thomas Gresham]].
* [[1566]]: [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], ruler of the [[Ottoman Empire]], dies on September 7, during the [[battle of Szigetvar]].[[File:Famien Strada Histoire-Taking of Valenciennes-ppn087811480 MG 8902T2p025.tif|thumb|[[Siege of Valenciennes (1567)|Siege of Valenciennes]] during the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch War of Independence]] in 1567|280x280px]]
* [[1566]]–[[1648]]: [[Eighty Years' War]] between Spain and the [[Netherlands]].
* [[1566]]: Da le Balle Contrade d'Oriente, composed by [[Cipriano de Rore]].
* [[1567]]: After 45 years' reign, [[Jiajing Emperor]] died in the [[Forbidden City]], [[Longqing Emperor]] ascended the throne of [[Ming dynasty]].
* [[1567]]: [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], is imprisoned by [[Elizabeth I]].
* [[1568]]: The [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvanian]] [[Diet (assembly)|Diet]], under the patronage of the prince [[John Sigismund Zápolya]], the former [[king of Hungary]], inspired by the teachings of [[Ferenc Dávid]], the founder of the [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania]], promulgates the [[Edict of Torda]], the first law of [[freedom of religion]] and of conscience in the World.
* [[1568]]–[[1571]]: [[Morisco Revolt]] in Spain.
* [[1568]]–[[1600]]: The [[Azuchi-Momoyama period]] in Japan.
* [[1568]]: Hadiwijaya sent his adopted son and son in-law [[Senopati|Sutawijaya]], who would later become the first ruler of the [[Mataram Sultanate|Mataram]] dynasty of Indonesia, to kill [[Arya Penangsang]].
* [[1569]]: [[Rising of the North]] in England.
* [[1569]]: [[Mercator 1569 world map]] published by [[Gerardus Mercator]].
* [[1569]]: The [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] is created with the [[Union of Lublin]] which lasts until [[1795]].
* [[1569]]: Peace treaty signed by Sultan Hairun of Ternate and Governor Lopez De Mesquita of Portugal.
===[[1570s]]===
[[File:Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Lepanto]]|290x290px]]
* [[1570]]: [[Ivan the Terrible]], tsar of Russia, orders the massacre of inhabitants of [[Novgorod]].
* [[1570]]: [[Pope Pius V]] issues ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'', a papal bull excommunicating all who obeyed [[Elizabeth I]] and calling on all Catholics to rebel against her.
* [[1570]]: Sultan [[Hairun]] of Ternate (in present-day Indonesia) is killed by the Portuguese.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25" /> [[Babullah of Ternate|Babullah]] becomes the next Sultan.
* [[1570]]: 20,000 inhabitants of Nicosia in Cyprus were massacred and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Cyprus fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] the following year.
* [[1571]]: [[Pope Pius V]] completes the [[Holy League (Mediterranean)|Holy League]] as a united front against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], responding to the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans.
* [[1571]]: The Spanish-led Holy League navy destroys the [[Ottoman Empire]] navy at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]].
* [[1571]]: [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatars]] attack and [[Russo-Crimean Wars|sack Moscow]], burning everything but the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]].
* [[1571]]: [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] kill Spanish missionaries in what would later be [[Jamestown, Virginia]].
* [[1571]]: Spanish conquistador [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] establishes [[Manila]], Philippines as the capital of the [[Spanish East Indies]].
* [[1572]]: [[Brielle]] is taken from [[Habsburg Spain]] by Protestant [[Watergeuzen]] in the [[Capture of Brielle]], in the [[Eighty Years' War]].
* [[1572]]: [[Conquistador|Spanish conquistadores]] apprehend the last [[Inca Empire|Inca]] leader [[Tupak Amaru]] at [[Vilcabamba, Peru]], and execute him in [[Cuzco]].
* [[1572]]: [[Jeanne d'Albret]] dies aged 43 and is succeeded by [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]].
* [[1572]]: [[Catherine de' Medici]] instigates the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] which takes the lives of Protestant leader [[Gaspard II de Coligny|Gaspard de Coligny]] and thousands of [[Huguenot]]s. The violence spreads from Paris to other cities and the countryside.
* [[1572]]:  First edition of the epic [[The Lusiads]] of [[Luís Vaz de Camões]], three years after the author returned from the East.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11198/ |title = The Lusiads |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1800–1882 |access-date = 2013-08-31 }}</ref>
* [[1572]]: The 9 years old [[Crown prince|Taizi]], [[Zhu Yijun]] ascended the throne of Ming dynasty, known as [[Wanli Emperor]].
* [[1573]]: After heavy losses on both sides the [[siege of Haarlem]] ends in a [[Spain|Spanish]] victory.[[File:La masacre de San Bartolomé, por François Dubois.jpg|thumb|[[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of French Protestants|290x290px]]
* [[1574]]: in the [[Eighty Years' War]] the capital of [[County of Zeeland|Zeeland]], [[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]] declares for the Protestants.
* [[1574]]: After a siege of 4 months the [[siege of Leiden]] ends in a comprehensive [[Dutch Revolt|Dutch rebel]] victory.
* [[1575]]: [[Oda Nobunaga]] finally captures [[Nagashima]] fortress.
* [[1575]]: Following a five-year war, the Ternateans under Sultan [[Babullah of Ternate|Babullah]] defeated the Portuguese.
* [[1576]]: [[Tahmasp I]], [[Safavid]] shah, dies.
* [[1576]]: The [[Battle of Haldighati]] is fought between the ruler of [[Mewar]], [[Maharana Pratap]] and the [[Mughal Empire]]'s forces under Emperor [[Akbar]] led by [[Raja]] [[Man Singh]].
* [[1576]]: [[Sack of Antwerp]] by badly paid [[Spaniards|Spanish]] soldiers.
* [[1577]]–[[1580]]: [[Francis Drake]] [[Circumnavigation|circles the world]].
* [[1577]]: Ki Ageng Pemanahan built his palace in Pasargede or Kotagede.
* [[1578]]: King [[Sebastian of Portugal]] is killed at the [[Battle of Alcazarquivir]].
* [[1578]]: The Portuguese establish a fort on [[Tidore]] but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25" />
* [[1578]]: [[3rd Dalai Lama|Sonam Gyatso]] is conferred the title of [[Dalai Lama]] by Tumed Mongol ruler, [[Altan Khan]]. Recognised as the reincarnation of two previous Lamas, Sonam Gyatso becomes the third Dalai Lama in the lineage.<ref name=":0">{{cite book| first=Peter| last=Schwieger| title=The Dalai Lama and the Emperor of China: a political history of the Tibetan institution of reincarnation| location=New York| publisher=Columbia University Press| date=2014| oclc=905914446| isbn=9780231538602| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHoyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33}}</ref>
* [[1578]]: [[Governor-General]] [[Francisco de Sande]] officially declared war against [[Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)|Brunei]] in 1578, starting the [[Castilian War|Castilian War of 1578]].
* [[1579]]: The [[Union of Utrecht]] unifies the northern Netherlands, a foundation for the later [[Dutch Republic]].
* [[1579]]: The [[Union of Arras]] unifies the southern Netherlands, a foundation for the later states of the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the [[Austrian Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]].[[File:The Image of Irelande - plate03.jpg|thumb|The [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Gaels|Gaelic]] chieftain's feast, from ''[[The Image of Irelande, with a Discoverie of Woodkarne|The Image of Ireland]]''|270x270px]]
* [[1579]]: The British navigator [[Sir Francis Drake]] passes through Maluku and transit in [[Ternate]] on his circumnavigation of the world. The Portuguese establish a fort on [[Tidore]] but the main centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku becomes Ambon.<ref name="MILLER_XV">{{cite book |editor-last =Miller |editor-first =George| title =To The Spice Islands and Beyond: Travels in Eastern Indonesia | publisher =Oxford University Press | year =1996 | location =New York| pages =xv | isbn = 967-65-3099-9 }}</ref>
===[[1580s]]===
[[File:La batalla de Gravelinas, por Nicholas Hilliard.jpg|thumb|The fall of [[Spanish Armada]]|290x290px]]
* [[1580]]: [[Francis Drake|Drake]]'s royal reception after his attacks on Spanish possessions influences [[Philip II of Spain]] to build up the [[Spanish Armada]]. English ships in Spanish harbours are impounded.
* [[1580]]: Spain unifies with Portugal under [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]]. The [[struggle for the throne of Portugal]] ends the [[Portuguese Empire]]. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns are [[Iberian Union|united]] for 60 years, i.e. until 1640.
* [[1580]]–[[1587]]: [[Nagasaki]] comes under control of the [[Jesuits]].
* [[1581]]: Dutch [[Act of Abjuration]], declaring abjuring allegiance to Philip II of Spain.
* [[1581]]: [[Bayinnaung]] dies at the age of 65.
* [[1582]]: [[Oda Nobunaga]] commits [[seppuku]] during the [[Honnō-ji Incident]] coup by his general, [[Akechi Mitsuhide]].
* [[1582]]: [[Pope Gregory XIII]] issues the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The last day of the Julian calendar was Thursday, 4 October 1582 and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582
* [[1582]]: [[Yermak Timofeyevich]] conquers the [[Siberia Khanate]] on behalf of the [[Stroganovs]].
* [[1583]]: Denmark builds the world's first theme park, [[Dyrehavsbakken|Bakken]].
* [[1583]]: Death of Sultan [[Babullah of Ternate]].
* [[1584]]–[[1585]]: After the [[Siege of Antwerp (1584-1585)|siege of Antwerp]], many of its merchants flee to [[Amsterdam]]. According to Luc-Normand Tellier, "At its peak, between 1510 and 1557, [[Antwerp]] concentrated about 40% of the world trade...It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Americas]]."<ref>Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA308 Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective]''". PUQ. p.308. {{ISBN|2-7605-1588-5}}</ref>
* [[1584]]: [[Gedhe Pamanahan|Ki Ageng Pemanahan]] died. Sultan Pajang raised Sutawijaya, son of Ki Ageng Pemanahan as the new ruler in [[Mataram Sultanate|Mataram]], titled "Loring Ngabehi Market" (because of his home in the north of the market).
* [[1585]]: Akbar annexes [[Kashmir]] and adds it to the [[History of Afghanistan#Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids|Kabul Subah]][[File:Fusta_by_Jan_Huygen_van_Linschoten.jpg|thumb|Portuguese [[fusta]] in [[Portuguese India|India]] from a book by [[Jan Huygen van Linschoten]]|260x260px]]
* [[1585]]: Colony at [[Roanoke Colony|Roanoke]] founded in North America.
* [[1585]]–[[1604]]: The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] is fought on both sides of the Atlantic.
* [[1587]]: [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] is executed by [[Elizabeth I]].
* [[1587]]: The reign of [[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] marks the zenith of the [[Safavid dynasty]].
* [[1587]]: Troops that would invade Pajang [[Mataram Sultanate]] storm ravaged the eruption of Mount Merapi. Sutawijaya and his men survived.
* [[1588]]: Mataram into the kingdom with Sutawijaya as Sultan, titled "Senapati Ingalaga Sayidin Panatagama" means the warlord and cleric Manager Religious Life.
* [[1588]]: England repulses the [[Spanish Armada]].
* [[1589]]: Spain repulses the [[English Armada]].
* [[1589]]: [[Catherine de' Medici]] dies at aged 69.
===1590–1600===
[[File:AbulFazlPresentingAkbarnama.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak]] presenting ''[[Akbarnama]]'' to Mughal Azam [[Akbar]], Mughal miniature]]
* [[1590]]: [[Siege of Odawara (1590)|Siege of Odawara]]: the [[Late Hōjō clan|Go-Hojo clan]] surrender to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Japan is unified.
* [[1591]]: [[List of Crimean khans|Gazi Giray]] leads a huge Tatar expedition against [[Moscow]].
* [[1591]]: In [[Mali]], [[Morocco|Moroccan]] forces of the Sultan [[Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi|Ahmad al-Mansur]] led by Judar Pasha defeat the [[Songhai Empire]] at the [[Battle of Tondibi]].
* [[1592]]–[[1593]]: [[John Stow]] reports 10,675 [[Black Death|plague]] deaths in [[London]], a city of approximately 200,000 people.
* [[1592]]–[[1598]]: Korea, with the help of [[Ming dynasty]] China, repels [[Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea|two Japanese invasions]].
* [[1593]]–[[1606]]: The [[Long War (Ottoman wars)|Long War]] between the [[Habsburg monarchy]] and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]].
* [[1594]]: [[St. Paul's College, Macau]], founded by [[Alessandro Valignano]].
* [[1595]]: First Dutch expedition to Indonesia sets sail for the East Indies with two hundred and forty-nine men and sixty-four cannons led by [[Cornelis de Houtman]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp27">Ricklefs (1991), page 27</ref>
* [[1596]]: Birth of [[René Descartes]].
* [[1596]]: June, de Houtman's expedition reaches [[Banten]] the main pepper port of West Java where they clash with both the Portuguese and Indonesians. It then sails east along the north coast of [[Java]] losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at [[Sidayu]] and killing a local ruler in [[Madura]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp27" />
* [[1597]]: ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' is published.
* [[1597]]: Cornelis de Houtman's expedition returns to the Netherlands with enough spices to make a considerable profit.<ref name="RICKLEFSp27" />
* [[1598]]: The [[Edict of Nantes]] ends the [[French Wars of Religion]].
* [[1598]]: [[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] moves [[Safavids]] capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]] in 1598.
* [[1598]]–[[1613]]: Russia descends into anarchy during the [[Time of Troubles]].
* [[1598]]: The Portuguese require an armada of 90 ships to put down a Solorese uprising.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p25" /> (to 1599)
* [[1598]]: More Dutch fleets leave for Indonesia and most are profitable.<ref name="RICKLEFSp27" />[[File:Sekigaharascreen.jpg|thumb|[[Edo period]] screen depicting the [[Battle of Sekigahara]]|290x290px]]
* [[1598]]: The province of [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México]] is established in Northern [[New Spain]]. The region would later become a territory of Mexico, the [[New Mexico Territory]] in the United States, and the US State of [[New Mexico]].
* [[1598]]: Death of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], known as the unifier of Japan.
* [[1599]]: The [[Mali Empire]] is defeated at the [[Battle of Jenné]].
* [[1599]]: The van Neck expedition returns to Europe. The expedition makes a 400 per cent profit.<ref name="RICKLEFSp27" /> (to 1600)
* [[1599]]: March, Leaving Europe the previous year, a [[Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia (1598-1600)|fleet]] of eight ships under [[Jacob van Neck]] was the first Dutch fleet to reach the ‘Spice Islands’ of Maluku.<ref name="RICKLEFSp27" />
* [[1600]]: [[Giordano Bruno]] is burned at the stake for [[Christian heresy|heresy]] in [[Rome]].[[File:Fülek megvétele 1593-ban.jpg|thumb|Siege of [[Fiľakovo]] castle during the [[Long Turkish War]]|290x290px]]
* [[1600]]: [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in [[Japan]]. End of the [[Sengoku period|Warring States period]] and beginning of the [[Edo period]].
* [[1600]]: The Portuguese win a major naval battle in the bay of Ambon.<ref name="RICKLEFSp28">Ricklefs (1991), page 28</ref> Later in the year, the Dutch join forces with the local Hituese in an anti-Portuguese alliance, in return for which the Dutch would have the sole right to purchase spices from Hitu.<ref name="RICKLEFSp28" />
* [[1600]]: [[Elizabeth I]] grants a charter to the [[British East India Company]] beginning the English advance in Asia.
* [[1600]]: [[Michael the Brave]] unifies the three principalities: [[Wallachia]], [[Moldavia]] and [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]] after the [[Battle of Șelimbăr]] from 1599.
{{for|later events|Timeline of the 17th century}}
=== Undated ===
*[[The Histories (Polybius)|Polybius' ''The Histories'']] translated into [[Italian language|Italian]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and [[French language|French]].<ref>Polybius: ''The Rise Of The Roman Empire'', Page 36, Penguin, 1979.</ref>
* [[Mississippian culture]] disappears.
* Medallion rug, variant Star [[Ushak]] style, [[Anatolia]] (modern [[Turkey]]), is made. It is now kept at the [[Saint Louis Art Museum]].
== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="150" heights="150">
File:Alberico Gentili.jpg|[[Alberico Gentili|Dr Alberico Gentili]], the Father of international law
File:Vasili III of Russia.jpg|[[Vasily III]], [[Grand Duke of Moscow]] by [[André Thévet]]
File:Hernán Cortés anónimo.jpg|[[Hernán Cortés|Hernan Cortes]]
File:Akbar1.jpg|[[Akbar|Akbar the Great]]
File:Philip II, King of Spain from NPG.jpg|[[Philip II of Spain]]
File:François Ier Louvre.jpg|[[Francis I of France|Francis I]] of France
File:Hans Holbein, the Younger, Around 1497-1543 - Portrait of Henry VIII of England - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Hans Holbein the Younger]], c. 1536 – 1537, ''[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]],'' [[King of England]] and [[Ireland]]
File:Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, III Duque de Alba, por Willem Key.jpg|Don [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba|Fernando Álvarez de Toledo]]
File:Ivan IV by anonim (18th c., GIM).jpg|[[Ivan IV the Terrible]]
File:1590 or later Marcus Gheeraerts, Sir Francis Drake Buckland Abbey, Devon.jpg|[[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]]
File:Odanobunaga.jpg|[[Oda Nobunaga]]
</gallery>
==Inventions, discoveries, introductions==
: ''Related article: [[Timeline of historic inventions#16th century|List of 16th century inventions]].''
* The [[Columbian Exchange]] introduces many plants, animals and diseases to the [[Old World|Old]] and [[New World]]s.
* Introduction of the [[spinning wheel]] revolutionizes [[textile]] production in Europe.
* The letter [[J]] is introduced into the [[English alphabet]].
* [[1500]]: First portable [[watch]] is created by [[Peter Henlein]] of [[Germany]].[[File: Philip II's realms in 1598.png|thumb|The [[Iberian Union]] in 1598, under [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], King of Spain and Portugal]]
* [[1513]]: [[Juan Ponce de León]] sights [[Florida]] and [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] sights the eastern edge of the [[Pacific Ocean]].
* [[1519]]–[[1522]]: [[Ferdinand Magellan]] and [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]] lead the first [[circumnavigation]] of the world.
* [[1519]]–[[1540]]: In America, [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] expeditions map the [[Gulf of Mexico]] coastline and bays.
* [[1525]]: Modern [[square root]] symbol (√)
* [[1540]]: [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado]] sights the [[Grand Canyon]].
* [[1541]]–[[1542|42]]: [[Francisco de Orellana]] sails the length of the [[Amazon River]].
* [[1542]]–[[1543|43]]: [[Firearms]] are introduced into [[Japan]] by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]].
* [[1543]]: [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] publishes his theory that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun
* [[1545]]: Theory of [[complex numbers]] is first developed by [[Gerolamo Cardano]] of Italy.
* [[1558]]: [[Camera obscura]] is first used in Europe by [[Giambattista della Porta]] of [[Italy]].
* [[1559]]–[[1562]]: Spanish settlements in [[Alabama]]/[[Florida]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] confirm dangers of [[hurricane]]s and local native warring tribes.
* [[1565]]: Spanish settlers outside [[New Spain]] (Mexico) colonize [[Florida]]'s coastline at [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]].
* [[1565]]: Invention of the [[graphite]] [[pencil]] (in a wooden holder) by [[Conrad Gesner]]. Modernized in [[1812]].
* [[1568]]: [[Gerardus Mercator]] creates the first [[Mercator projection]] map.
* [[1572]]: Supernova [[SN 1572]] is observed by [[Tycho Brahe]] in the [[Milky Way]].
* [[1582]]: [[Gregorian calendar]] is introduced in [[Europe]] by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] and adopted by Catholic countries.
* c. [[1583]]: [[Galileo Galilei]] of [[Pisa]], [[Italy]] identifies the constant swing of a [[pendulum]], leading to development of reliable timekeepers.
* [[1585]]: earliest known reference to the '[[Wheelbarrow#Chinese sailing carriage|sailing carriage]]' in [[China]].
* [[1589]]: [[William Lee (inventor)|William Lee]] invents the [[stocking frame]].
* [[1591]]: First flush [[toilet]] is introduced by [[John Harington (writer)|Sir John Harrington]] of [[England]], the design published under the title 'The Metamorphosis of Ajax'.
* [[1593]]: [[Galileo Galilei]] invents a [[thermometer]].
* [[1596]]: [[William Barents]] discovers [[Spitsbergen]].
* [[1597]]: [[Opera]] in [[Florence]] by [[Jacopo Peri]].
==See also==
*[[Entertainment in the 16th century]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140303181656/http://www.vistorica.com/eng/persongroups/1500,1600,european,all,small.html Timelines of 16th century events, science, culture and persons]
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Latest revision as of 13:28, 16 August 2024

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  • 15th century
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File:Mercator World Map.jpg
The world map by the Italian Amerigo Vespucci (from whose name the word America is derived) and Belgian Gerardus Mercator shows (besides the classical continents Europe, Africa, and Asia) the Americas as America sive India Nova', New Guinea, and other islands of Southeast Asia, as well as a hypothetical Arctic continent and a yet undetermined Terra Australis.[1]

The 16th century began with the Julian year 1501 (represented by the Roman numerals MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).[1]

The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century which saw the rise of Western civilization.

The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle, and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science. Galileo Galilei became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of physics and astronomy, becoming a major figure in the Scientific Revolution in Europe.

Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of Central and South America, followed by France and England in Northern America and the Lesser Antilles. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between Brazil, the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in the Indies, whereas the Spanish came to dominate the Greater Antilles, Mexico, Peru, and opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French privateers began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a zero-sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist doctrine encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism throughout the world until the 19th century or early 20th century.

The Reformation in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Catholic Church. In England, the British-Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years' War being laid towards the end of the century.

In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the sultan taking the title of caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the Shia sect of Islam under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority-Sunni Muslim world.[2]

In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagara Empire, new powers emerged, the Sur Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri, Deccan sultanates, Rajput states, and the Mughal Empire[3] by Emperor Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.[4] His successors Humayun and Akbar, enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia.

Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the Sengoku period, and emerged from it as a unified nation under Toyotomi Hideyoshi. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty, which was becoming increasingly isolationist, coming into conflict with Japan over the control of Korea as well as Japanese pirates.

In Africa, Christianity had begun to spread in Central Africa and Southern Africa. Until the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, most of Africa was left uncolonized.

Significant events

For timelines of earlier events, see 15th century and Timeline of the Middle Ages.

1501–1509

File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg
Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1503–1506, one of the world's best-known paintings

1510s

File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png
Afonso de Albuquerque

1520s

File:Retrato de Hernando de Magallanes.jpg
Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition that circumnavigated the globe in 1519–1522.

1530s

File:Battle Spanish Otomies Metztitlan.jpg
Spanish conquistadors with their Tlaxcallan allies fighting against the Otomies of Metztitlan in present-day Mexico, a 16th-century codex

1540s

File:Copernicus.jpg
Nicolaus Copernicus

1550s

File:The Adventures of Akbar artillery.jpg
The Islamic gunpowder empires: Mughal Army artillerymen during the reign of Jalaluddin Akbar

1560s

File:Akbar shoots Jaimal at the siege of Chitor.jpg
The Mughal Emperor Akbar shoots the Rajput warrior Jaimal during the Siege of Chittorgarh in 1567

1570s

File:Battle of Lepanto 1571.jpg
The Battle of Lepanto

1580s

File:La batalla de Gravelinas, por Nicholas Hilliard.jpg
The fall of Spanish Armada

1590–1600

File:AbulFazlPresentingAkbarnama.jpg
Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak presenting Akbarnama to Mughal Azam Akbar, Mughal miniature
For later events, see Timeline of the 17th century.

Undated

Gallery

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

Related article: List of 16th century inventions.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Modern reference works on the period tend to follow the introduction of the Gregorian calendar for the sake of clarity; thus NASA's lunar eclipse catalogue states "The Gregorian calendar is used for all dates from 1582 Oct 15 onwards. Before that date, the Julian calendar is used." For dates after 15 October 1582, care must be taken to avoid confusion of the two styles.
  2. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  3. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  4. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  5. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  6. ↑ "History of Smallpox – Smallpox Through the Ages" Archived 2019-09-24 at the Wayback Machine. Texas Department of State Health Services.
  7. ↑ Ricklefs (1991), p.23
  8. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ricklefs (1991), page 24
  10. ↑ The Sweating Sickness. Story of London.. Accessed 2009-04-25. Archived 2009-05-03.
  11. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Ricklefs (1991), page 25
  13. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  14. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  15. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  16. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2058: attempt to index a boolean value.
  17. ↑ Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). "Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective". PUQ. p.308. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Ricklefs (1991), page 27
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Ricklefs (1991), page 28
  20. ↑ Polybius: The Rise Of The Roman Empire, Page 36, Penguin, 1979.

Further reading

  • Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free

External links

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