View source for Atomic battery

{{Short description|Devices generating electricity from radioisotope decay}}
{{for|the generation of radioactive isotopes|radionuclide generator}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}

An '''atomic battery''', '''nuclear battery''', '''radioisotope battery''' or '''radioisotope generator''' is a device which uses energy from the [[radioactive decay|decay]] of a [[radioactive isotope]] to generate [[electricity]].  Like [[nuclear reactor]]s, they generate electricity from nuclear energy, but differ in that they do not use a [[nuclear chain reaction|chain reaction]]. Although commonly called [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]], they are technically not [[electrochemical]] and cannot be charged or recharged. They are very costly, but have an extremely long life and high [[energy density]], and so they are typically used as power sources for equipment that must operate unattended for long periods of time, such as [[spacecraft]], [[artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemakers]], [[underwater]] systems and [[research station|automated scientific stations]] in remote parts of the world.<ref>[http://www.gizmag.com/smaller-nuclear-battery/13076/ "A nuclear battery the size and thickness of a penny"]. ''Gizmag'', 9 October 2009.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8297934.stm "Tiny 'nuclear batteries' unveiled"]. ''BBC News'', Thursday, 8 October 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NanoTritium™ Battery Technology |url=https://citylabs.net/technology-overview/ |website=City Labs |access-date=25 May 2023}}</ref>

Nuclear battery technology began in 1913, when [[Henry Moseley]] first demonstrated a current generated by charged particle radiation. The field received considerable in-depth research attention for applications requiring long-life power sources for space needs during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1954 [[RCA]] researched a small atomic battery for small radio receivers and hearing aids.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nd8DAAAAMBAJ&dq=1954+Popular+Mechanics+January&pg=PA87 "Atomic Battery Converts Radioactivity Directly Into Electricity"]. ''Popular Mechanics'', April 1954, p. 87.</ref> Since RCA's initial research and development in the early 1950s, many types and methods have been designed to extract electrical energy from nuclear sources. The scientific principles are well known, but modern nano-scale technology and new [[wide-bandgap semiconductor]]s have created new devices and interesting material properties not previously available.

Nuclear batteries can be classified by [[Energy transformation|energy conversion]] technology into two main groups: ''thermal converters'' and ''non-thermal converters''. The thermal types convert some of the heat generated by the nuclear decay into electricity. The most notable example is the [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (RTG), often used in spacecraft. The non-thermal converters extract energy directly from the emitted radiation, before it is degraded into heat. They are easier to miniaturize and do not require a thermal gradient to operate, so they are suitable for use in small-scale applications. The most notable example is the [[betavoltaic cell]].

Atomic batteries usually have an efficiency of 0.1–5%. High-efficiency [[betavoltaic device]]s can reach 6–8% efficiency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://electronicsbus.com/atomic-batteries-nuclear-batteries/ |title=Thermoelectric Generators |website=electronicbus.com |access-date=23 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110172013/http://electronicsbus.com/atomic-batteries-nuclear-batteries/ |archive-date=10 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Thermal conversion ==

=== Thermionic conversion ===
A [[thermionic converter]] consists of a hot electrode, which thermionically emits electrons over a space-charge barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful power output. [[Caesium]] vapor is used to optimize the electrode [[work function]]s and provide an ion supply (by [[surface ionization]]) to neutralize the electron [[space charge]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Thermionic converter |last=Fitzpatrick |first=G. O. |date=19 May 1987 |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6377296 |website=Office of Scientific and Technical Information |osti=6377296}}</ref>

=== Thermoelectric conversion ===
{{main|Radioisotope thermoelectric generator}}
[[File:HD.17.071 (11966200113).jpg|thumb|241px|Radioisotope-powered cardiac pacemaker being developed by the Atomic Energy Commission, is planned to stimulate the pulsing action of a malfunctioning heart. Circa 1967.]]
A [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (RTG) uses [[thermocouple]]s. Each thermocouple is formed from two wires of different metals (or other materials).  A temperature gradient along the length of each wire produces a voltage gradient from one end of the wire to the other; but the different materials produce different voltages per degree of temperature difference.  By connecting the wires at one end, heating that end but cooling the other end, a usable, but small (millivolts), voltage is generated between the unconnected wire ends.  In practice, many are connected in series (or in parallel) to generate a larger voltage (or current) from the same heat source, as heat flows from the hot ends to the cold ends. Metal thermocouples have low thermal-to-electrical efficiency. However, the carrier density and charge can be adjusted in semiconductor materials such as bismuth telluride and silicon germanium to achieve much higher conversion efficiencies.<ref>{{cite conference |title=An overview of the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator Transportation System Program |last=McCoy |first=J.C |conference=STAIF 96: space technology and applications international forum, Albuquerque, NM (United States), 7-11 Jan 1996 |date=October 1995 |osti=168371}}</ref>

=== Thermophotovoltaic conversion ===
[[Thermophotovoltaic]] (TPV) cells work by the same principles as a [[photovoltaic cell]], except that they convert [[infrared]] light (rather than [[Visible spectrum|visible light]]) emitted by a hot surface, into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermoelectric couples and can be overlaid on thermoelectric couples, potentially doubling efficiency. The [[University of Houston]] [[Thermophotovoltaic|TPV]] Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology development effort is aiming at combining thermophotovoltaic cells concurrently with [[thermocouple]]s to provide a 3- to 4-fold improvement in system efficiency over current thermoelectric radioisotope generators. {{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}

=== Stirling generators ===
{{main article|Stirling radioisotope generator}}
A [[Stirling radioisotope generator]] is a [[Stirling engine]] driven by the temperature difference produced by a radioisotope. A more efficient version, the [[advanced Stirling radioisotope generator]], was under development by [[NASA]], but was cancelled in 2013 due to large-scale cost overruns.<ref>[http://futureplanets.blogspot.com/2013/12/the-asrg-cancellation-in-context.html The ASRG Cancellation in Context] Future Planetary Exploration</ref>

== Non-thermal conversion ==
Non-thermal converters extract energy from emitted radiation before it is degraded into heat. Unlike thermoelectric and thermionic converters their output does not depend on the temperature difference. Non-thermal generators can be classified by the type of particle used and by the mechanism by which their energy is converted.

=== Electrostatic conversion ===
Energy can be extracted from emitted [[charged particle]]s when their [[Electric charge|charge]] builds up in a [[Conduction of electricity|conductor]], thus creating an [[Electric potential|electrostatic potential]]. Without a dissipation mode the [[voltage]] can increase up to the energy of the radiated particles, which may range from several kilovolts (for beta radiation) up to megavolts (alpha radiation). The built up [[Electric potential energy|electrostatic energy]] can be turned into usable electricity in one of the following ways.

==== Direct-charging generator ====
A direct-charging generator consists of a [[capacitor]] charged by the current of [[charged particle]]s from a radioactive layer deposited on one of the electrodes. Spacing can be either vacuum or [[dielectric]]. Negatively charged [[beta particle]]s or positively charged [[alpha particles]], [[positron]]s or [[Fission products|fission fragments]] may be utilized. Although this form of nuclear-electric generator dates back to 1913, few applications have been found in the past for the extremely low currents and inconveniently high voltages provided by direct-charging generators. Oscillator/transformer systems are employed to reduce the voltages, then rectifiers are used to transform the AC power back to direct current.

English physicist [[Henry Moseley|H. G. J. Moseley]] constructed the first of these. Moseley's apparatus consisted of a glass globe [[silver]]ed on the inside with a radium emitter mounted on the tip of a wire at the center. The charged particles from the [[radium]] created a flow of electricity as they moved quickly from the radium to the inside surface of the sphere. As late as 1945 the Moseley model guided other efforts to build experimental batteries generating electricity from the emissions of radioactive elements.

==== Electromechanical conversion ====
{{main|Radioisotope piezoelectric generator}}
Electromechanical atomic batteries use the buildup of charge between two plates to pull one bendable plate towards the other, until the two plates touch, discharge, equalizing the electrostatic buildup, and spring back. The mechanical motion produced can be used to produce electricity through flexing of a [[piezoelectric]] material or through a linear generator. Milliwatts of power are produced in pulses depending on the charge rate, in some cases multiple times per second (35&nbsp;Hz).<ref>{{cite journal
 |last=Lal 
 |first=Amit 
 |author2=Rajesh Duggirala 
 |author3=Hui Li 
 |title=Pervasive Power:A Radioisotope-Powered Piezoelectric Generator 
 |journal=IEEE Pervasive Computing 
 |volume=4 
 |pages=53–61 
 |year=2005 
 |url=http://sonicmems.ece.cornell.edu/publications/pervasivepower.pdf 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621162629/http://sonicmems.ece.cornell.edu/publications/pervasivepower.pdf 
 |archive-date=21 June 2007 
|doi=10.1109/MPRV.2005.21 
 |s2cid=18891519 
 }}</ref>

=== Radiovoltaic conversion ===
A ''radiovoltaic'' (RV) device converts the energy of ionizing radiation directly into electricity using a [[semiconductor junction]], similar to the conversion of photons into electricity in a [[photovoltaic cell]]. Depending on the type of radiation targeted, these devices are called ''alphavoltaic'' (AV, αV), ''betavoltaic'' (BV, βV) and/or ''gammavoltaic'' (GV, γV). Betavoltaics have traditionally received the most attention since (low-energy) beta emitters cause the least amount of radiative damage, thus allowing a longer operating life and less shielding. Interest in alphavoltaic and (more recently) gammavoltaic devices is driven by their potential higher efficiency.

==== Alphavoltaic conversion ====
Alphavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic [[alpha particle]]s.<ref>NASA Glenn Research Center, [http://rt.grc.nasa.gov/power-in-space-propulsion/photovoltaics-power-technologies/technology-thrusts/alpha-and-beta-voltaics/ Alpha- and Beta-voltaics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018100731/http://rt.grc.nasa.gov/power-in-space-propulsion/photovoltaics-power-technologies/technology-thrusts/alpha-and-beta-voltaics/ |date=18 October 2011 }} (accessed 4 October 2011)</ref><ref>Sheila G. Bailey, David M. Wilt, Ryne P. Raffaelle, and Stephanie L. Castro, [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/2005/RP/RPV-bailey1.html Alpha-Voltaic Power Source Designs Investigated] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716172638/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/2005/RP/RPV-bailey1.html |date=16 July 2010 }}, ''Research and Technology 2005,'' NASA TM-2006-214016, (accessed 4 October 2011)</ref>

==== Betavoltaic conversion ====
{{main|Betavoltaic device}}
[[Betavoltaic device]]s use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic [[beta particle]]s ([[electron]]s). A commonly used source is the hydrogen isotope [[tritium]].

Betavoltaic devices are particularly well-suited to low-power electrical applications where long life of the energy source is needed, such as implantable medical devices or military and space applications.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tritium Batteries as a Source of Nuclear Power |url=https://citylabs.net/applications/ |website=City Labs |access-date=25 May 2023}}</ref>

The Chinese startup Betavolt claimed in January 2024 to have a miniature device in the pilot testing stage.<ref name=AC>{{Cite news |author= Anthony Cuthbertson |title= Nuclear battery produces power for 50 years without needing to charge |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/tech/nuclear-battery-betavolt-atomic-china-b2476979.html |date= 12 January 2024 |access-date= 14 January 2024}}</ref> It is allegedly generating 100 microwatts of power and a voltage of 3V and has a lifetime of 50 years without any need for charging or maintenance.<ref name=AC/> Betavolt claims it to be the first such miniaturised device ever developed.<ref name=AC/>
It gains its energy from the isotope [[nickel-63]] located in a module the size of a very small coin.<ref name=Toms>{{Cite news |author= Mark Tyson |title= Chinese-developed nuclear battery has a 50-year lifespan — Betavolt BV100 built with Nickel-63 isotope and diamond semiconductor material |newspaper=[[Tom's Hardware]] |url= https://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/power-supplies/chinese-developed-nuclear-battery-has-a-50-year-lifespan |date= 13 January 2024 |access-date= 17 January 2024}}</ref>
As it's consumed, the nickel-63 decays into stable, non-radioactive isotopes of copper, which pose no environmental threat.<ref name=Toms/> It contains a thin wafer of nickel-63 providing [[beta particle]] electrons sandwiched between two thin [[Crystallographic defects in diamond#Interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic defects|crystallographic]] diamond semiconductor layers.<ref>[https://newatlas.com/energy/betavolt-diamond-nuclear-battery/ "Betavolt says its diamond nuclear battery can power devices for 50 years"]. David Szondy for New Atlas, 16 January 2024. Accessed 17 January 2024.</ref><ref>"[https://www.betavolt.tech/359485-359485_645066.html  贝塔伏特公司成功研制民用原子能电池]" ('Betavolt successfully develops atomic energy battery for civilian use'), on Betavolt website (in Chinese). Accessed 17 January 2024.</ref>

==== Gammavoltaic conversion ====
Gammavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic [[gamma particle]]s (high-energy [[photon]]s). They have only been considered in the 2010s<ref name=":0">{{Cite conference |author=Hiroshi Segawa |author2=Ludmila Cojocaru |author3=Satoshi Uchida |date=7 November 2016 |title=Gammavoltaic Property of Perovskite Solar Cell - Toward the Novel Nuclear Power Generation|url=https://www.nanoge.org/proceedings/AP-HOPV17/58c15c8f9c168f501d8babe2|access-date=1 September 2020 |book-title=Proceedings of International Conference Asia-Pacific Hybrid and Organic Photovoltaics |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite patent|number=20180350482|title=Gamma Voltaic Cell|gdate=2018-12-06|invent1=Ryan|inventor1-first=Michael Doyle|url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2018/0350482.html}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=MacKenzie|first=Gordon|date=October 2017|title=A Diamond Gammavoltaic Cell|url=https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=studentship-1955046|website=UK Research and Innovation}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Mackenzie|first=Robbie|date=19 June 2020|title=Diamond Gammavoltaic Cells for Biasless Gamma Dosimetry|url=https://southwestnuclearhub.ac.uk/diamond-gammavoltaic-cells-for-biasless-gamma-dosimetry/|access-date=1 September 2020|website=South West Nuclear Hub|language=en-GB}}</ref> but were proposed as early as 1981.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySZhMJrzhw4C&pg=PA10|title = Popular Science|date = January 1981}}</ref>

A gammavoltaic effect has been reported in [[perovskite solar cell]]s.<ref name=":0" /> Another patented design involves scattering of the gamma particle until its energy has decreased enough to be absorbed in a conventional photovoltaic cell.<ref name=":1" /> Gammavoltaic designs using [[diamond]] and [[Schottky diode]]s are also being investigated.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

=== Radiophotovoltaic (optoelectric) conversion ===
{{main|Optoelectric nuclear battery}}
In a [[Optoelectric nuclear battery|''radiophotovoltaic'' (RPV) device]] the energy conversion is indirect: the emitted particles are first converted into light using a [[Radioluminescence|radioluminescent]] material (a [[scintillator]] or [[phosphor]]), and the light is then converted into electricity using a [[Solar cell|photovoltaic cell]]. Depending on the type of particle targeted, the conversion type can be more precisely specified as ''alphaphotovoltaic'' (APV or α-PV),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Purbandari|first1=Dessy|last2=Ferdiansjah|first2=Ferdiansjah|last3=Sujitno|first3=Tjipto|date=2019|title=Optimization of the Alpha Energy Deposited in Radioluminescence Thin Film for Alphaphotovoltaic Application|journal=Proceeding International Conference on Science and Engineering|volume=2|pages=41–44|doi=10.14421/icse.v2.52|s2cid=141390756|language=en|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''betaphotovoltaic'' (BPV or β-PV)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Berman|first1=Veronika|last2=Litz|first2=Marc Stuart|last3=Russo|first3=Johnny|date=2018|title=Investigation of Electrical Power Degradation in Beta Photovoltaic (βPV) and Beta Voltaic (βV) Power Sources Using 63Ni and 147Pm |website=Defense Technical Information Center |s2cid=139545450 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1062807}}</ref> or ''gammaphotovoltaic'' (GPV or γ-PV).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LIAKOS|first=John K.|date=1 December 2011|title=Gamma-Ray-Driven Photovoltaic Cells via a Scintillator Interface|journal=Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology|volume=48|issue=12|pages=1428–1436|doi=10.1080/18811248.2011.9711836|s2cid=98136174|issn=0022-3131|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Radiophotovoltaic conversion can be combined with radiovoltaic conversion to increase the conversion efficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guo|first1=Xiao|last2=Liu|first2=Yunpeng|last3=Xu|first3=Zhiheng|last4=Jin|first4=Zhangang|last5=Liu|first5=Kai|last6=Yuan|first6=Zicheng|last7=Gong|first7=Pin|last8=Tang|first8=Xiaobin|date=1 June 2018|title=Multi-level radioisotope batteries based on 60Co γ source and Radio-voltaic/Radio-photovoltaic dual effects|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924424718303017|journal=Sensors and Actuators A: Physical|language=en|volume=275|pages=119–128|doi=10.1016/j.sna.2018.04.010|s2cid=117568424|issn=0924-4247}}</ref>

== Pacemakers ==

Medtronic and Alcatel developed a [[plutonium-238#Nuclear powered pacemakers|plutonium-powered pacemaker]], the Numec NU-5, powered by a 2.5 Ci slug of plutonium 238, first implanted in a human patient in 1970. The 139 Numec NU-5 nuclear pacemakers implanted in the 1970s are expected to never need replacing, an advantage over non-nuclear pacemakers, which require surgical replacement of their batteries every 5 to 10 years. The plutonium "batteries" are expected to produce enough power to drive the circuit for longer than the 88-year halflife of the plutonium.<ref>[https://www.medicaldesignandoutsourcing.com/medtech-memoirs-the-plutonium-powered-pacemaker/ "MedTech Memoirs: The Plutonium-Powered Pacemaker"].
</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/health-heart-pacemaker-dc/nuclear-pacemaker-still-energized-after-34-years-idUKN1960427320071219 "Nuclear pacemaker still energized after 34 years"].</ref><ref>R L Shoup.[https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4126031 "Nuclear-Powered Cardiac Pacemakers"].</ref><ref>Crystal Phend.[https://www.medpagetoday.org/cardiology/arrhythmias/7745?vpass=1 "Extra Battery Life Not Always a Plus for Nuclear-Powered Pacemaker"].</ref> [[betavoltaics|Betavoltaic batteries]] are also being considered as long-lasting power sources for lead-free pacemakers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pacemaker Batteries for Leadless Pacemakers |url=https://citylabs.net/applications/pacemaker-batteries/ |website=City Labs |access-date=25 May 2023}}</ref>

== Radioisotopes used ==
Atomic batteries use radioisotopes that produce low energy beta particles or sometimes alpha particles of varying energies. Low energy beta particles are needed to prevent the production of high energy penetrating [[Bremsstrahlung]] radiation that would require heavy shielding. Radioisotopes such as [[tritium]], [[nickel]]-63, [[promethium]]-147, and [[technetium]]-99 have been tested. [[Plutonium]]-238, [[curium]]-242, [[curium]]-244 and [[strontium]]-90 have been used.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bindu |first1=K.C. |last2=Harmon| first2=Frank |last3=Starovoitova |first3=Valeriia |last4=Stoner |first4=Jon |last5=Wells |first5=Douglas |date=2013 |title=Optimization of commercial scale photonuclear production of radioisotopes |journal=AIP Conference Proceedings |volume=1525 |issue=1 |pages=407–411|doi=10.1063/1.4802359|bibcode=2013AIPC.1525..407B |doi-access=free }}</ref> Besides the nuclear properties of the used isotope, there are also the issues of chemical properties and availability. A product deliberately produced via [[neutron irradiation]] or in a particle accelerator is more difficult to obtain than a [[fission product]] easily extracted from [[spent nuclear fuel]].

Plutonium-238 must be deliberately produced via neutron irradiation of Neptunium-237 but it can be easily converted into a stable plutonium oxide ceramic. Strontium-90 is easily extracted from spent nuclear fuel but must be converted into the [[perovskite (structure)|perovskite]] form [[strontium titanate]] to reduce its chemical mobility, cutting power density in half. Caesium-137, another high yield nuclear fission product, is rarely used in atomic batteries because it is difficult to convert into chemically inert substances. Another undesirable property of Cs-137 extracted from spent nuclear fuel is that it is contaminated with other [[isotopes of Caesium]] which reduce power density further.

==Micro-batteries==

In the field of microelectromechanical systems ([[MEMS]]), nuclear engineers at the [[University of Wisconsin, Madison]] have explored the possibilities of producing minuscule batteries which exploit radioactive nuclei of substances such as polonium or curium to produce electric energy.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} As an example of an integrated, self-powered application, the researchers have created an oscillating cantilever beam that is capable of consistent, periodic oscillations over very long time periods without the need for refueling. Ongoing work demonstrate that this cantilever is capable of radio frequency transmission, allowing [[Microelectromechanical systems|MEMS]] devices to communicate with one another wirelessly.

These micro-batteries are very light and deliver enough energy to function as power supply for use in MEMS devices and further for supply for nanodevices.<ref>{{cite book|last = Waldner |first = Jean-Baptiste |author-link = Jean-Baptiste Waldner |title = Inventer l'Ordinateur du XXIème Siècle |publisher = [[Hermes Science]] |place = London |year = 2007 | pages = 172 |isbn = 978-2-7462-1516-0}}</ref>

The radiation energy released is transformed into electric energy, which is restricted to the area of the device that contains the [[Microprocessor|processor]] and the micro-battery that supplies it with energy.<ref name=Waldner08>{{cite book |last = Waldner |first = Jean-Baptiste |author-link = Jean-Baptiste Waldner |title = Nanocomputers and Swarm Intelligence |publisher = [[ISTE Ltd|ISTE]] [[John Wiley & Sons]] |place = London |year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-84704-002-2
| quote = radioactive nuclei releases electrons that shoot the negative pole of the battery
}}</ref>{{rp|180–181}}

== See also ==
*[[List of battery types]]
*[[Button cell]]
*[[Induced gamma emission]] from long-lived excited nuclei of specific nuclear isomers.
*[[Radioisotope heater unit]]
*[[Radioisotope rocket]] and [[nuclear electric rocket]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://citylabs.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/BetavoltaicHistory.pdf Betavoltaic Historical Review]
*[http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Oct02/cantilever.ws.html Cantilever Electromechanical Atomic Battery]
*[http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~blanchar/res/BlanchardKorea.pdf Types of Radioisotopic Batteries]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070115091842/http://www.tfot.info/content/view/76/64/ Americium Battery Concept Proposed for Space Applications]- TFOT article
*[http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2050039,00.html Nuclear Batteries (25 MW)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8297934.stm Tiny 'nuclear batteries' unveiled], [[BBC]] article about the research of [[Jae Wan Kwon]] et al. from the [[University of Missouri]].
{{Galvanic cells}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Atomic Battery}}
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[[Category:Nuclear technology]]
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